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Research Writing

UNIVERSITIES, COLLEGES OF EDUCATION AND POLYTECHNICS RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT WRITING: A STEP BY STEP APPROACH

At educational institutes’ level, a project is a research assignment – given to a student – which generally requires a larger amount of effort and more independent  work  requiring  students  to  undertake their own fact-finding and analysis, either from library/internet research or from gathering data empirically. The written project report that follows is usually in the form of a document, which will contain chapters on the project’s introduction, review of related literature, methodology, analysis, findings and conclusions.

Students carrying out a project are usually assigned a supervisor. The supervisor is primarily to receive proposals (topics) of the research interest of the student, approve it, provide corrections, guidance and assess the work at the end. Also, there is the external supervisor, who provides an external independent assessment of the research work.

Project report writing includes some initial preliminary pages while the main work is usually divided into five chapters (broadly) before any further divisions. These are the sub heading:

• Title page
• Approval page
• Dedication
• Acknowledgements
• Abstract
• Table Of Content
• List Of Tables
• List Of Figures
• List Of Symbols/ Nomenclature (Where Applicable)
• Main Work (Chapter One To Five)
• References
• Appendices (Where Applicable)

Title Page: In the title page, the topic of the work is written, the name of the author, the name of the department/institution is put, then the reason for the report – this is why it is required that students add that it is ‘in partial fulfillment of the course requirement required for the award of the B.sc degree. Then the date is added.

Approval Page: This is where the supervisor, head of department and external supervisor append their signatures to indicate approval of the work.

Dedication Page: This is where the researcher dedicate the research to someone, dead or/and alive or to God. This is different from the acknowledgement.

Acknowledgements: The researcher here writes to appreciate all that contributed technically, financially and otherwise) to the success of the research. Usually, the project supervisor is expected to be first before others.

Abstract: This is the summary or synopsis of the research work. It is written last with the tense in past. According to the APA style manual, an abstract should be between 150 to 200 words summarizing the introduction, problem statement, the methodology and analytical tools employed, the findings, conclusion and recommendations. This should be in a single paragraph.

Table of Content: Here, the main headings and sub-headings and page numbers are listed. This allows for easy page identification and reference.

List of Tables: This consists of list to aid the reader in locating tables using titles of each table and number tags.

List of Figures: This consists of list to aid the reader in locating figures using titles of each figure and number tags.

THE BODY OF THE WORK

Chapter One – INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study: This includes a review of the area being researched, current information surrounding the issue, previous studies on the issue, and relevant history on the issue.

Statement of the Problem: A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the question: What is the problem that the research will address?
It helps in articulating the specific objective of the study.

Objectives of the Study: The broad objective of the work usually is the research topic, while the specific objectives are decomposed variables from the research topic which makes it easy to realize the broad objectives. The specific objectives are interplay of the various dependent variables and independent variables within the research topic. Some department and institutions prefer the use of purpose of the study, whichever is used, it still means the same.

Research Questions: A research question is fundamental constructed in line with the specific objectives of the research work, in that in sourcing answers to the questions the “research problem” would be addressed. The main purpose of the research question is to determine where and what kind of research (qualitative, quantitative and mixed study) the writer will be looking for. When the research is complete and the researcher knows the (probable) answer to the research question, then writing begins.

Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a tentative, testable answer to a scientific question. In other words, hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction describing in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not all studies have hypotheses.

Significance of the Study: This includes the meaning of the research work to you personally and should include how your research benefits or impacts others in part or whole. It should include a brief discussion of what people or groups of people might benefit from reading your research.

Scope of the Study (Delimitation): This basically means all those things that will be covered in the research project. Delimitation or scope tends to narrow the study to specific variables, for example specific participants, specific geographical area, specific time frame and so on.

Limitation of the Study: These are influences that the researcher cannot control. They are the shortcomings, conditions or influences that place restrictions on the methodology and conclusions. Limitations of any kind that might influence the results should be mentioned.

Definition of Terms: Terms that will be used with other meanings other that the usual meaning know to all should be defined. Also terms that are subject to various interpretations should be defined.

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter is basically about the works done by others, while appropriately citing various authors. Here, paraphrasing and commenting on cited work is encouraged rather than direct quotations, which should be used sparingly. This chapter is divided into four; conceptual framework, empirical studies, theoretical framework and the missing gap (contribution to knowledge).

Conceptual Framework: A conceptual framework is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used to make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas. Strong conceptual frameworks capture something real and do this in a way that is easy to remember and apply (Wikipedia). In other words, conceptual framework is the researcher’s understanding of how the particular variables in his study connect with each other. It may include construction of models used to analyse and/or explain a phenomenon.

Previous Empirical Studies: Means to creatively identify latest trends of the development in the study area and further support the findings generated from previous literature reviews with the empirical data. It also involves comparison of findings so as to assist the researchers in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of such findings.

Theoretical Framework: This is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under study exists. It provides a particular perspective, or lens, through which to examine a topic. There are many different lenses, such as psychological theories, social theories, organizational theories, economic theories, educational theories and so on.

The Missing Gap (Contribution to Knowledge): The essence of research is to find more knowledge and add to the existing body of knowledge. Contribution to knowledge means creating new knowledge, based on the previous available knowledge by doing extensive and innovative research.

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A research method is a systematic plan for conducting research.

Research Design: It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. It includes an outline of the researcher “would-do-list” from the onset of hypothesizing to the final data analysis. These make up the design decisions:
What is the study about?
Why the study?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where to find the data required?
What time frame is the study?
What sample design will be adopted?
What technique of data collection will be adopted?
How will data be analyzed?

Types of Research Design:
• Historical Research Design

Survey Research Design: This design is classified into 2; Procedure & Purpose based.
Procedure Based: Questionnaire survey, Interview survey, Observational survey and Panel Survey.
Purpose Based: Developmental Survey, Descriptive Survey, Correlational Survey and Public Opinion Survey.

Case study Research Design
Ex-Post Facto Research Design
• Experimental Research Design

Area of the Study: This is the delineation of a study according to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions.

Population of the Study: The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings. It could also be referred to as the totality/universe of items which the researcher is to study. Population usually has a common, binding characteristic or trait.

Sample: A sample is a small group of subjects/elements drawn through a definite procedure from a specified population.

Determinant of Sample Size: Sample size must be indicated in every study. Important to note that the more sample size approaches the population, the better for the study so as to comfortably generalize findings. Also, the fewer the sample size the greater the possibility of sampling error. Always use statistical technique to determine sample size.

Method of Data Collection: The choice of method is influenced by the data collection strategy, the type of variable, the accuracy required, the collection point and the skill of the enumerator. There are Quantitative and Qualitative Data collection methods.
• The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. E.g. Interview, questionnaires etc
• Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories: in-depth interview, observation methods and document review.

Validity of Instrument: Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. E.g. Face validity, Content validity, Construct validity and Predictive validity.

Reliability of Instrument: It is a way of ensuring that any instrument used for measuring experimental variables gives the same results every time. E.g. Test-Retest Method, Equivalent-Form Reliability, Split-Half Method

Method of Data Analysis: There are two methods that a researcher can pursue data analysis; qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative research revolves around describing characteristics, which is descriptive statistics. It does not use numbers. A good way to remember qualitative research is to think of quality.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research because its prime focus is numbers, which is inferential statistics. Quantitative research is all about quantity.

 

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter, data presentation and analysis means the process of organizing data into logical, sequential and meaningful categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation. The researcher has three modes of the presentation of data available, namely: (1) Textual (2) Tabular (3) Graphical.

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Here, there should be a brief statement about the main objectives/purpose of the study, the population or respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the research instrument, and the sampling design. Then, conclusions will be discussed based on researcher’s insights gained regarding study findings and analysis. Based on these, relevant recommendations are proffered.

REFERENCES
A reference page is the last page of a research work that’s been written. It lists all the sources you have used in your project, so readers can easily find those research works you have cited.
Difference between Bibliography and References: People most of the time do not think that there is any difference between bibliography and references. They often mistake the two to be the same. However, they are different and used in different contexts with each essay or article or book.

Bibliography is listing all the materials that have been consulted while writing an essay or a book. You might have consulted a lot of books, essays and websites for writing something. Though you might have referred to these while preparing a write up, the content of these might not have been included in the actual text. This is what refers to bibliography.
References, on the other hand, are those that have been referenced in your article or book. References are those that are directly included in your actual text.

APPENDIX
What is an appendix? A section at the end of a paper that includes information that is too detailed for the text of the paper itself and would “burden the reader” or be “distracting,” or “inappropriate”
APPENDIX I – LETTER OF INTRODUCTION (Where Applicable)
APPENDIX II – QUESTIONNAIRE (Where Applicable)

TIPS TO EFFECTIVE WRITING
Get a dedicated note for your research writings or jottings. Start by brainstorming topics, collecting information, taking a lot of notes, and asking a lot of questions. Ensure your notes and sources are well organized as you go about data gathering so as to make writing easy. For example, visit the internet and download scholarly articles related to your topic. Create a folder for your Dependent Variable and another for your Independent Variable, in which you put related articles when downloaded.

When developing your topic, look for issues and relationships around your variables. Ensure you discuss your ideas with classmates or your supervisor. A new perspective can boost and keep your momentum going.

Try and organize your writing by developing an outline to help you stay on track as you write, identifying your main points and what you want to conclude. Always keep in mind your research objectives.

Ensure your introduction gives your reader an idea of the project’s intent, including a basic statement of what the project will be working on. The body presents the evidence that supports your idea. Use concrete examples whenever you are buttressing a point and avoid generalizations.

The conclusion should summarize and make sense of the evidence you presented in the body of your work.

A times, as you progress you may find out that your initial idea have been researched or may not be researchable, feel free to change it or switch to a more convenient or researchable topic.
Start on time so as to finish on time. That way you have room to refine and proofread your work before final submission/defense.

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